Organizational Theory and Behavior: David S. Walonick, 1993
Online at: http://www.statpac.org/walonick/organizational-theory.htm
Classical Organization Theory
Classical organization theory represents the merger of scientific management theory (Frederick Taylor 1917), bureaucratic theory (Max Weber 1947) and administrative theory (Mooney and Reiley 1931).
Scientific management theory's four basic principles:
1) find the one "best way" to perform each task
2) carefully match each worker to each task
3) closely supervise workers, and use reward and punishment as motivators
4) the task of management is planning and control.
"Initially, Taylor was very successful at improving production but the philosophy of "production first, people second" has left a legacy of declining production and quality, dissatisfaction with work, loss of pride in workmanship, and a near complete loss of organizational pride."
The above suggests that for people to fulfill their potential and put their all into the project at hand, they need to be happy in their work and feel that they are a part of something special. It is the people that make the production a success. Therefore the treating of them is of upmost importance in order to gain the best working outcome. The simplicity of reward and punishment is not enough. Skills need nurturing, assistance and feedback. Matching individual workers to tasks isn't enough in the creative industry. Working together and collaboration is required in order to meet time scales, enhance creativity and facilitate others ideas and specialities.
"Weber's bureaucratic theory emphasized the need for a hierarchical structure of power. It recognized the importance of division of labor and specialization. Weber also put forth the notion that organisational behavior is a network of human interactions, where all behavior could be understood by looking at cause and effect."
This supports Cohen's belief that leadership is required within the theatre to organise the devision of labour so that the work executed complements one another rather than contradicting each other or duplicating the work unnecessarily. Although people must work together by participating and cooperating, specialisation is important so that we maximise each of the experts unique abilities and get the best contribution possible from each company member. My ensemble track for example has the most leg actions in it to make use of my flexibility.
Administrative theory was about "establishing a universal set of management principles." Management is important because devision of labour and specialism requires overseeing and supervising, it makes sure people are pulling their weight and have the support they need. However, "The shortcomings of classical organisation theory quickly became apparent. Its major deficiency was that it attempted to explain peoples' motivation to work strictly as a function of economic reward." We can link this to previous literature source on teamwork where "the team performance, in itself, is the outcome of interest, rather than a means to some other ends such as profit, safety or victory." (Rouse & Rouse 2004)
I have discovered from interviewing participants that the reason people choose to work in theatre is because they enjoy it. Love, fun and creativity are the motivators and are at the root of theatre - as we established previously with amateur dramatic societies. Theatre is a result of an interpersonal and collaborative effort by a group of people who have common interests. "We are all working toward the same goal" (participant) i.e. putting on a fantastic production. Not one person mentioned any financial benefits or rewards. Therefore, organisational theory in relation to theatre requires further exploration.
Neoclassical Organization Theory
"Neoclassical theory displayed genuine concern for human needs."
"Barnard (1968) proposed one of the first modern theories of organization by defining organization as a system of consciously coordinated activities. Organizational success was linked to the ability of a leader to create a cohesive environment. He proposed that a manager's authority is derived from subordinates' acceptance, instead of the hierarchical power structure of the organisation."
Organisational Structure
"In 'federal decentralization' (Drucker 1974), a company is organised so that there are a number of independent units operating simultaneously. "Each unit has its own management which, in effect, runs its own autonomous business." This structure has resulted in large conglomerates which have diversified into many different fields in order to minimise risk."
We can relate our company to this structure. As you can see from the diagram I've drawn above, we have each department in close proximity, executing a relatively small number of tasks toward the whole project and which are based upon their speciality. Each head of department ensures the smooth running and success of their team but the company manager/stage manager makes any final decisions and monitors things like individual budgets. This structure is beneficial because it allows the facilitation of several experts/specialties and there is ultimately only one boss. However, it can make it easy to focus in your own discipline rather than seeing the overall picture of the project at hand. This is something I am to highlight as part of my inquiry.
In regards to the 'project management organisational structure' (French, Kast and Rosenzweig, 1985), "the project manager becomes the focal point for information and activities related to a specific project. The goal is to provide effective integration of an organization's resources towards the completion of a specific project. Implementing a project management approach often involves dramatic changes in the relationships of authority and responsibility."
We could also look at our production as 1 project to be completed by the organisation, the organisation effectively being the producing company. The producers not ony have control over our show but they have others such as The Bodyguard and Mrs Henderson Presents. If we look at the bigger picture and the external figures, it could seem that our company manager is, in essence, the project manager for this production and the one person in our company that everyone reports to. Having just the one authoritative figure should allow for more effective communication and understanding, enabling everyone to excel and commit to their individual responsibilities. When interviewing our company manager he stated that the hardest part was "being the middle man" between company members and creatives/producers, and trying to "keep happy boundaries ". It's a beneficial position for him to be in because he is the person most in the know and it sets him in good stead for career progression, however as with the social networking theory, this means he could be the one point of failure in the organisation/network. He already informed me of the small production company he has set up himself and hopes to expand in years to come.
I think this particular structure is good for the arts because it reduces the amount of management, putting everyone else on an equal status for effective collaboration. The disadvantage is that most of the employees are hired on a temporary basis, so during the contract there isn't very often a chance for any long term goals or career progression. You are hired for a particular duration and for a particular role. I am struggling momentarily because I haven't been singing in my current role, and am now attending meetings that require me to perform songs. It does mean that you get a group of very committed and dedicated experts working toward the goal.
'Systems theory' views organizational structure as the "established pattern of relationships among the parts of the organization" (French, Kast, and Rosenzweig, 1985, p. 348). "Of particular importance are the patterns in relationships and duties. These include themes of 1) integration (the way activities are coordinated), 2) differentiation (the way tasks are divided), 3) the structure of the hierarchical relationships (authority systems), and 4) the formalised policies, procedures, and controls that guide the organisation (administrative systems)."
"It is a commonly held tenant that people are less satisfied with their work in highly structured organisations." However, structural deficiencies can also result in "low motivation and morale, decisions lacking in timeliness or quality, lack of coordination and conflict, inefficient use of resources, and an inability to respond effectively to changes in the environment." (French, Kast, and Rosenzweig, 1885).
I believe it is important within a creative environment for people to have some freedom within their roles. I think it is key to enhancing job satisfaction and maintaining the love and enjoyment for what they're doing. I have learnt from conducting my interviews that exercising creativity is extremely important for morale and motivation. The head of wigs talked to me about 'play days' with his team. The head of lighting engages in design outside of work. The head of wardrobe and carpentry both enjoy the problem solving element of their job roles i.e. Fixing things when they go wrong. The reason being so that they can do something different and be creative in this new approach to a situation. I do think a structure is necessary to meet deadlines, manage conflict, maintain context etc; but I think the key here is that people in our environment love the theatre and are extremely passionate about what they do. Results to structural deficiencies may not be as apparent because not only do they enjoy their jobs, there is a huge amount of pride and self criticism applied if they aren't executing their job to the very best ability. Continued professional development was mentioned by various participants, therefore I feel we are very good at managing ourselves to an extent - thus requiring less of a highly structured organisation.
The Learning Organisation
"Learning organisations are organisations that are continually enhancing their capacity to create." (Senge 1900. p. 127)
Senge (1990) discusses learning disabilities in companies. One of the most serious disabilities is when people form a strong identification with their position. What they do becomes a function of their position. They see themselves in specific roles, and are unable to view their jobs as part of a larger system. This often leads to animosity towards others in the organization, especially when things go wrong."
This is a main aim of my inquiry - to reduce any 'disabilities' and 'animosity' within our company, and other companies. It is very easy for myself as a dance to come into work at a particular time, expecting everything to be done and in working order. I find 'the blame game' very common in a theatrical environment. If something goes wrong, it is so easy to point a finger rather than thinking 'how can we fix this?' or 'actually, out of 500 performances, this has never been a problem.' This happened to me side of stage one day after conducting one of my practical demonstrations. One cast member was complaining about the positioning of some set. Because I had recently seen and had a go at some of the set related activities, I could share my new found knowledge and understanding with this person. Putting on a production is something much larger and greater than ourselves. If I can pass on a small piece of this then hopefully we can enhance our capacity to achieve creative success collectively.
"Senge (1990) refers to several other learning disabilities as "myths". One myth is that we "learn from experience". Senge maintains that we actually only learn when the experience is followed by immediate feedback."
This was actually a great benefit of conducting practical demonstrations and shadowing in the departments. Because I was able to have a go at some skill specific activities with them, i not only participated but I gained instant feedback. After talking about the 'artefact' with my tutors/SIG's, I plan to apply this learning process to my film. I hope to film my company members watching my film in progress, in order to continue the collaborative cycle I'm aiming for - both at work and in my studies.
According to Senge, there are five disciplines important to the learning organization.
- building a shared vision.
- personal mastery
- mental models
- only shared mental models are important for organizational learning.
- The fifth discipline is a commitment to a systems approach.
Klein states that shared mental models are also key to teamwork, found in: "Teamwork in the performing arts" by William Rouse, Rebecca Rouse (2004)
Community
"An organization acting as a community is a collective lifelong learner, responsive to change, receptive to challenge, and conscious of an increasingly complex array of alternatives." (Gozdz 1992. p. 108) Communities provide safe havens for its members and foster an environment conducive to growth. Gozdz describes the community as group of people who have a strong commitment to "ever-deepening levels of communication." (p. 111)
The above suggests to me that the affiliation (reader 3) and the support we gain from our communities of practice (Lave & Wenger 1991), are essential components to the growth and development of our company and production. How we communicate with one another affects our community building process and thus the success of the organisation.
"According to Gozdz (1992), the job of the leaders in the process of community building is to keep peoples' attention focused on the process."
Organisational structure
Online at: http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/organizational-structure.html
"The typically hierarchical arrangement of lines of authority, communications, rights and duties of an organisation. Organisational structure determines how the roles, power and responsibilities are assigned, controlled, and coordinated, and how information flows between the different levels of management."
"In a centralized structure, the top layer of management has most of the decision making power and has tight control over departments and divisions. In a decentralized structure, the decision making power is distributed and the departments and divisions may have different degrees of independence."
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